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Ajal Shamsiddin Umar

Vikipediya, ochiq ensiklopediya
(Ajall Shams al-Din Omardan yoʻnaltirildi)
Sayyid Ajal Shamsiddin Umar
Shaxsiy maʼlumotlari
Tavalludi 1211-yil
Buxoro
Vafoti 1279 (yoshi 67–68)
Yunnan, Yuan Xitoy
Millati Xorazmshohlar, Yuan
Bolalari Nasriddin[1][2], Hassan, Hussein, Shamsddin Omar, Mas’ud
Harbiy xizmatlari
Sayyid Ajal Shamsiddin Umar al-Buxoriy ibn Sayyid Kamoliddin bin Sayyid Shamsiddin Umar al-Buxoriyning qabri, Xitoy

Sayyid Ajal Shamsiddin Umar al-Buxoriy (forscha: سید اجل شمس‌الدین عمر بخاری; xitoycha: 赛典赤·赡思丁; pinyin: Sàidiǎnchì Shànsīdīng; 1211—1279) Xitoyning moʻgʻullar boshchiligidagi Yuan sulolasi tomonidan tayinlangan Yunnanning birinchi provinsiya gubernatori.

Hayoti

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Shamsiddinning kelib chiqishi oʻrta osiyo|lik eroniy boʻlib[3][4][5], musulmon davlat boʻlgan Xorazmshohlar davlatining Buxoro shahridan edi (hozirgi Oʻzbekistonga toʻgʻri keladi). Xorazmshohlar va moʻgʻullar oʻrtasidagi urushda Chingizxon shaharga hujum qilganda, Sayyid Ajal Shamsiddin Umarning oilasi unga taslim boʻladi. U Ali ibn Abu Tolib va payg‘ambarlar avlodidan boʻlgan, Sayyid Ajalning otasi Kamoliddin, bobosi esa Shamsiddin Umar al-Buxoriy boʻlgan[6]. Marshall Broomhallning yozishicha, „Buxorolik Shamsiddin Muhammad paygʻambarning yigirma yettinchi avlodi boʻlgan“[7]. Sayyid Munkexonning Sichuanni zabt etishida qatnashgan va logistika ishlarini boshqargan[8]. U Yanjindagi (hozirgi Pekin) Yuan sulolasi saroyida xizmat qilgan[9]. Keyinchalik 1274-yilda Dali qirolligini zabt etgandan soʻng Xubilayxon tomonidan Yunnanga yuborilgan 1259-yilda imperator moliya ishlarini boshqargan[10]. Oʻlimidan soʻng Sayyidga Chjxunyi (忠懿) nomi berildi[8].

Gubernatorlik davridagi siyosati

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Sayyid Ajal zamonaviy Kunmin joylashgan „Chjunjin Chen“ deb nomlangan „xitoycha uslubdagi“ shaharga asos solgan[11]. Shaharda buddistlar, konfutsiylar ibodatxonalari va ikkita masjid qurishni buyurgan. Islom, xristianlik, buddizm, daosizm va konfutsiylikni targʻib qilish moʻgʻul diniy siyosatining bir qismi boʻlgan[12] The Confucian temple that Sayyid Ajall built in 1274, which also doubled as a school, was the first Confucian temple ever to be built in Yunnan.[13]. Sayyid Ajal 1274-yilda qurdirgan maktab vazifasini oʻtagan konfutsiylik ibodatxonasi, Yunnanda qurilgan birinchi Konfutsiy ibodatxonasidir[14].

Sayyid Ajal Yunnanda boʻlgan davrida „rivojlantirish missiyasi“ doirasida Islomni ham, konfutsiylikni ham targʻib qilgan[15] Sayyid Ajal Yunnanni „qoloq va vahshiy“ deb hisoblagan va bu hududni „rivojlantirish“ uchun konfutsiylik, islom va buddizmdan foydalangan.

Yunnanda islom dinining mavjudligi Sayyid Ajalning nomi bilan bogʻliq[16].

Sayyid Ajal birinchi boʻlib Yunnanga islomni olib kirgan. U konfutsiylik ibodatxonalari va masjidlarni qurishga buyruq berib, konfutsiylik va islomni targʻib qilgan[17]. Sayyid Ajal Yunnanda ham konfutsiy taʼlimini joriy qildirgan[18][19].

Shamsiddin Yunnan shahrida koʻplab Konfutsiy ibodatxonalarini qurdirgan va konfutsiy taʼlimini targʻib qilgan. Yunnan provinsiyasida xitoylashtirish siyosatini yoyishga yordam bergani bilan mashhur[20]. U Yunnanda ham bir qancha masjidlar qurdirgan.

Konfutsiylik marosimlari va anʼanalari Yunnanga Sayyid Ajal tomonidan kiritilgan[21]. U tomonidan bir qancha Konfutsiy ibodatxonalari va maktablariga asos solingan. Xitoy ijtimoiy tuzilmalari, xitoycha dafn va nikoh odatlari mahalliy aholiga Sayyid Ajal tomonidan yoyilgan[22][14].

Sayyid Ajalning Yunnanda konfutsiychilik va taʼlimni targʻib qilish siyosatidan maqsad mahalliy „varvarlar“ ni „madaniylashtirish“ boʻlgan. Sichuanlik olimlar tomonidan yangi tashkil etilgan maktablarda oʻquvchilarga konfutsiy marosimlari oʻrgatilgan, Konfutsiy ibodatxonalari qurilgan[23][24]. Yunnan aholisiga konfutsiycha toʻylar, sovchilar, dafn marosimlari, ajdodlarga sigʻinish va Sayyid Ajal tomonidan qavm qilish kabi marosimlar oʻrgatilgan. Mahalliy rahbarlarning „varvar“ kiyimlari oʻrniga Sayyid Ajal tomonidan boshqa sovgʻa qilingan[25][24].

Marko Polo ham, Rashiduddin ham Yuan sulolasi davrida Yunnan aholisi koʻp musulmonlar boʻlganini, Rashiduddin esa aholisining barchasi musulmon boʻlgan shaharni „buyuk Yachi shahri“ deb nomlaganini qayd etgan[26]. Yachi Dali shaharlaridan (Ta-li) biri boʻlgan deb taxmin qilingan. Dalida Hui xalqi koʻp boʻlgan[27].

Uning oʻgʻli Nasriddin Sayyid Ajal vafotidan keyin 1279-yilda Yunnan hokimi boʻlgan[28][29].

Tarixchi Jacqueline Armijo-Hussein Sayyid Ajalning konfutsiylashtirish va xitoylashtirish siyosati haqida oʻzining „Sayid Ajal Shamsiddin: Markaziy Osiyodan kelgan musulmon, Xitoyda moʻgʻullarga xizmat qilayotgan va Yunnanga „sivilizatsiya“ olib kelgan“[30] nomli dissertatsiyasida shunday yozgan: „Janubi-gʻarbiy Xitoyda konfutsiy va islom taʼlimining kelib chiqishi[31]: Yuan davridagi Yunnan va Xitoyda moʻgʻullar qoʻli ostida xizmat qilayotgan buxorolik musulmonning Xitoy va gʻarbiy tarixshunoslikdagi xitoylashtirish va konfutsiylashtirishi bilan bogʻliq“[32]. U Daxueshi masjidi va Siandagi katta masjid kabi koʻplab masjidlarni taʼmirlab, qurdirgan[33]. Sian shahridagi Daxueshi xiyobonidagi masjidda 1523-yilda oʻrnatilgan stela mavjud boʻlib, u masjidning islohoti va qurilishidan dalolat beradi.

Oilasi

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Sayyid Ajalning katta oʻgʻli Nasrisddin[34]. Sayyid Ajalning yettinchi avlodi Sayyid Hojiga borib taqaladi[35].

Sayyid Ajal Muhammad paygʻambarning yigirma oltinchi va Su fei-erhning beshinchi avlodi hisoblanadi. Jami beshta oʻgʻli bor. Sayyidning ikkita qabri bor boʻlib, ulardan biri Yuandagi Vo-er-to shahrida va Shensi provinsiyasi Sian shahridagi yana bir yodgorlikda uning kiyimlari ilingan. „Islomning magnit ignasi“ asarining muallifi Ma Chu (1630—1710) Sayyid Ajal avlodidan boʻlgan. Sayyid Ajalning avlodlariga misol qilib, oʻn beshinchi avlodi — Ma Chju va yigirma beshinchi avlodi — Ma Dexinni keltirish mumkin[36].

Sayyid Ajal butun Xitoy boʻylab koʻplab musulmonlarning ajdodlari hisoblanadi[37].

Uning eng mashhur avlodlaridan biri Chjan Xedir[38][39].

XIII asrda alohida musulmonlarning taʼsiri, ayniqsa Sayyid Ajal Shamsiddin Umarning taʼsiri juda katta boʻlib, u milodiy 1279-yilda Yunnan shahrida vafotigacha moʻgʻul xonlariga xizmat qilgan. Uning oilasi Yunnanda hamon yashab kelmoqda. Xitoydagi musulmon ishlarida muhim qismini egallagan[40].

Manbalar

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  1. ↑ ; Stuart C. Munro-HayIslam: an illustrated history, illustrated, revised, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006 — 226-bet. ISBN 978-0-8264-1837-1. Qaraldi: 2011-yil 17-iyul. „Yunnan - centuries later destined to achieve a brief autonomy as a rebellious Muslim state ~is said, after the Mongol conquest, to have been given to Sayyid Ajall Shams al-Din 'Umar as governor, who introduced Islam there. His son Nasr al-Din's victory over the king of Mien (Burma, now Myanmar) was recorded by Marco Polo (1277)“ 
  2. ↑ Morris Rossabi. From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia: The Writings of Morris Rossabi. BRILL, 28 November 2014 — 271–272-bet. ISBN 978-90-04-28529-3. 
  3. ↑ The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History, illustrated, Oxford University Press, 2012 — 252-bet. ISBN 978-0199732159. Qaraldi: 2014-yil 24-aprel. 
  4. ↑ Wang, Chuan-Chao; Wang, Ling-Xiang; Zhang, Manfei; Yao, Dali; Jin, Li; Li, Hui (2013). "Present y chromosomes support the Persian ancestry of Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar and Eminent Navigator Zheng He". arXiv:1310.5466 [q-bio.PE]. 
  5. ↑ Morris Rossabi. From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia: The Writings of Morris Rossabi. BRILL, 28 November 2014 — 229–-bet. ISBN 978-90-04-28529-3. 
  6. ↑ Lane, George „The Dali Stele“, . The Horizons of the World. Festschrift for İsenbike Togan: Hududü'l-Alem. İsenbike Togan Armağanı. Istanbul: Ithaki Press, 2011 — 8-bet. 
  7. ↑ Marshall Broomhall. Islam in China: A Neglected Problem. Morgan & Scott, Limited, 1910 — 127–-bet. 
  8. ↑ 8,0 8,1 域外集. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2013 — 66, 99-bet. ISBN 9787101095432. 
  9. ↑ „zh:玉溪《使者》“ (zh). 央视国际 (CCTV international) (2005-yil 24-fevral). Qaraldi: 2014-yil 24-aprel.
  10. ↑ Thomas Walker Arnold. The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith. WESTMINSTER: A. Constable and co., 1896 — 248-bet. Qaraldi: 2011-yil 29-may. „several Muhammadans also occupying high posts under the Mongol Khaqaans : such were 'Abdu-r Rahman, wh9o in 1244 was appointed head of the Imperial finances and allowed to farm the taxes imposed upon China 1 ; and Sayyid Ajall, a native of Bukhara, to whom Khubilay Khan, on his accession in 1259, entrusted the management of the Imperial finances ; he died in 1270, leaving a high reputation for honesty, and was succeeded by another Muhammadan named Ahmad, who on the other hand left behind him a reputation the very reverse of that of his predecessor.“ (Original from the University of California)
  11. ↑ Gaubatz, Piper Rae. Beyond the Great Wall: Urban Form and Transformation on the Chinese Frontiers, illustrated, Stanford University Press, 1996 — 78-bet. ISBN 978-0804723992. Qaraldi: 2014-yil 24-aprel. 
  12. ↑ Peter Jackson, 2004. "Validation by Holiness or Sovereignty: Religious Toleration as Political Theology in the Mongol World Empire, ". The International History Review, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 237-256
  13. ↑ Tan Ta Sen. Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia, illustrated, reprint, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009 — 92-bet. ISBN 978-9812308375. Qaraldi: 2014-yil 24-aprel. 
  14. ↑ 14,0 14,1 Lane, George „SAYYED AJALL“. Encyclopædia Iranica. Encyclopædia Iranica (2011-yil 29-iyun). Qaraldi: 2012-yil 17-noyabr.
  15. ↑ Atwood, Christopher P. "Sayyid Ajall 'Umar Shams-ud-Din." Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2004. Ancient and Medieval History Online. Facts On File, Inc. http://www.fofweb.com/History/MainPrintPage.asp?iPin=EME454&DataType=Ancient&WinType=Free (Wayback Machine saytida 2014-08-13 sanasida arxivlangan) (accessed July 29, 2014).
  16. ↑ M. Th Houtsma. First encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936. BRILL, 1993 — 847-bet. ISBN 978-90-04-09796-4. Qaraldi: 2011-yil 20-dekabr. „Although Saiyid-i Adjall certainly did much for the propagation of Islam in Yunnan, it is his son Nasir al-Din to whom is ascribed the main credit for its dissemination. He was a minister and at first governed the province of Shansi : he later became governor of Yunnan where he died in 1292 and was succeeded by his brother Husain. It cannot be too strongly emphasised that the direction of this movement was from the interior, from the north. The Muhammadan colonies on the coast were hardly affected by it. On the other hand it may safely be assumed that the Muslims of Yunnan remained in constant communication with those of the northern provinces of Shensi and Kansu.“ 
  17. ↑ (Original from the University of Virginia)Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmiʻat al-Malik ʻAbd al-ʻAzīz. Maʻhad Shuʻūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah. Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7-8. The Institute, 1986 — 385-bet. Qaraldi: 2011-yil 20-dekabr. „certain that Muslims of Central Asian originally played a major role in the Yuan (Mongol) conquest and subsequent rule of south-west China, as a result of which a distinct Muslim community was established in Yunnan by the late 13th century AD. Foremost amongst these soldier-administrators was Sayyid al-Ajall Shams al-Din Umar al-Bukhari (Ch. Sai-tien-ch'ih shan-ssu-ting). a court official and general of Turkic origin who participated in the Mongol invasion of Szechwan ... And Yunnan in c. 1252, and who became Yuan Governor of the latter province in 1274–79. Shams al-Din - who is widely believed by the Muslims of Yunnan to have introduced Islam to the region - is represented as a wise and benevolent ruler, who successfully "pacified and comforted" the people of Yunnan, and who is credited with building Confucian temples, as well as mosques and schools“ 
  18. ↑ Liu, Xinru. The Silk Road in World History. Oxford University Press, 2001 — 116-bet. ISBN 978-0199798803. Qaraldi: 2014-yil 24-aprel. 
  19. ↑ The Hui ethnic minority
  20. ↑ Michael Dillon. China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press, 1999 — 23-bet. ISBN 978-0-7007-1026-3. Qaraldi: 2010-yil 28-iyun. 
  21. ↑ In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1993 — 476-bet. ISBN 978-3447033398. Qaraldi: 2014-yil 24-aprel. 
  22. ↑ In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1993 — 477-bet. ISBN 978-3447033398. Qaraldi: 2014-yil 24-aprel. 
  23. ↑ Yang, Bin. Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press, 2009 — 154-bet. ISBN 978-0231142540. Qaraldi: 2014-yil 24-aprel. 
  24. ↑ 24,0 24,1 Yang, Bin „Chapter 5 Sinicization and Indigenization: The Emergence of the Yunnanese“, . Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0231142540. 
  25. ↑ Yang, Bin. Between winds and clouds: the making of Yunnan (second century BCE to twentieth century CE). Columbia University Press, 2009 — 157-bet. ISBN 978-0231142540. Qaraldi: 2014-yil 24-aprel. 
  26. ↑ (Original from the University of Virginia)Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmiʻat al-Malik ʻAbd al-ʻAzīz. Maʻhad Shuʻūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah. Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7-8. The Institute, 1986 — 174-bet. Qaraldi: 2011-yil 20-dekabr. „from the Yuan Dynasty, and indicated further Muslim settlement in northeastern and especially southwestern Yunnan. Marco Polo, who travelled through Yunnan "Carajan" at the beginning of the Yuan period, noted the presence of "Saracens" amongst the population. Similarly, the Persian historian Rashid al-Din (died 1318 AD) recorded in his Jami' ut-Tawarikh that the 'great city of Yachi' in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims.“ 
  27. ↑ (Original from the University of Virginia)Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmiʻat al-Malik ʻAbd al-ʻAzīz. Maʻhad Shuʻūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah. Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7-8. The Institute, 1986 — 387-bet. Qaraldi: 2011-yil 20-dekabr. „when Maroco Polo visited Yunnan in the early Yuan period he noted the presence of "Saracens" amongst the population whilst the Persian historian Rashid al-Din (died 1318 AD) recorded in his Jami' ut-Tawarikh that 'the great city of Yachi' in Yunnan was exclusively inhabited by Muslims. Rashid al-Din may have been referring to the region around Ta-li in western Yunnan, which was to emerge as the earliest centre of Hui Muslim settlement in the province.“ 
  28. ↑ ( )Thant Myint-U. Where China Meets India: Burma and the New Crossroads of Asia. Macmillan, 2011. ISBN 978-1-4668-0127-1. Qaraldi: 2011-yil 20-dekabr. „In this way, Yunnan became known to the Islamic world. When Sayyid Ajall died in 1279 he was succeeded by his son Nasir al-Din who governed for five years and led the invasion of Burma. His younger brother became the Transport Commissioner and the entire family entrenched their influence.“ 
  29. ↑ (Original from the University of Virginia)Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Jāmiʻat al-Malik ʻAbd al-ʻAzīz. Maʻhad Shuʻūn al Aqallīyat al-Muslimah. Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, Volumes 7-8. The Institute, 1986 — 385-bet. Qaraldi: 2011-yil 20-dekabr. „On his death he was succeeded by his eldest son, Nasir al-Din (Ch. Na-su-la-ting, the "Nescradin" of Marco Polo), who governed Yunnan between 1279 and I284. Whilst Arab and South Asian Muslims, pioneers of the maritime expansion of Islam in the Bay of Bengal, must have visited the“ 
  30. ↑ „Dissertations in Central Eurasian Studies“. 2017-yil 10-yanvarda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2023-yil 28-iyul.
  31. ↑ „Session 8: Individual Papers: New Work on Confucianism, Buddhism, and Islam from Han to Yuan“. 2015-yil 15-iyulda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2023-yil 28-iyul.
  32. ↑ Gladney, Dru C.. Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic, illustrated, Harvard Univ Asia Center, 1996 — 366-bet. ISBN 978-0674594975. Qaraldi: 2014-yil 24-aprel. 
  33. ↑ Hagras, Hamada (2019-12-20). "The Ming Court as Patron of the Chinese Islamic Architecture: The Case Study of the Daxuexi Mosque in Xi'an". SHEDET (6): 134–158. doi:10.36816/shedet.006.08. Archived from the original on 2020-10-18. https://web.archive.org/web/20201018002837/http://www.fayoum.edu.eg/english/shedet/ISSUES201908.aspx. Qaraldi: 2023-07-28. Ajal Shamsiddin Umar]]
  34. ↑ ()Stephen G. Haw. Marco Polo's China: a Venetian in the realm of Khubilai Khan, illustrated, Psychology Press, 2006 — 164-bet. ISBN 978-0-415-34850-8. Qaraldi: 2011-yil 20-dekabr. „Nasir al-Din (Nasulading) was the eldest son of Sa'id Ajall Shams al-Din (see Chapter 7) and followed his father in holding high office in the government of Yunnan. He led campaigns to subjugate various peoples of the province, including the Gold Teeth, and also commanded the invasion of Mien and took part in fighting in Annam. He was rewarded with titles and gifts of money for his prowess. In 1291, he was moved to the government of Shaanxi province, but died of illness the following year (YS: liezhuan 12, 1936). He did not, in fact, command the Mongol army that defeated the invasion by the King of Mien in 1277, as Marco state (MP/Lathan: 185; MP/Hambis: 310). He did, however, lead the attack on Mien immediately afterwards that followed up the defeat of the King's army (see Chapter 7).“ 
  35. ↑ Marshall Broomhall. Islam in China: A Neglected Problem. Morgan & Scott, Limited, 1910 — 91–-bet. 
  36. ↑ Muslim Public Affairs Journal. Muslim Public Affairs Council, 2006 — 72-bet. 
  37. ↑ ; Brett De Bary"Race" panic and the memory of migration. Ithaca, NY: Hong Kong University Press, 2001 — 297-bet. ISBN 978-962-209-561-8. Qaraldi: 2011-yil 20-dekabr. „In addition to the Muslim soldiers and officials who had arrived with the Mongol forces in Yunnan in 1253, many other Muslims settled here as well, and within 50 years the Muslim population of the region was sufficiently large to be noted by both Rashid al-Din (the Persian historian) and Marco Polo in their writings ... Among Sayyid 'Ajall's twelve sons and numerous grandsons, many served throughout China and there are Muslim communities scattered across the country who can trace their genealogies back to him. The largest number, however, remained in Yunnan. His eldest son, Nasir al-Din (Ch. Na-su-la-ding), also held a high office in Yunnan, and is commonly credited with providing the source for traditional Han Chinese surnames that all Muslims were required by the state to adopt during the Ming period (1368–1644). In Yunnan, after Ma (the surname which derives from the transliteration of the name of Muhammad) the most common surnames for Muslims are Na, Su, La, and Ding.“ 
  38. ↑ Shih-Shan Henry Tsai: Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle. Washington Press 2002, p. 38 (restricted online copy, s. 38, Google Booksda)
  39. ↑ Jiang, Xinghua; Deng, Zhongkai. „Zheng He's pedigree“ (zh). China Military Online English Edition (2005-yil 13-iyul). Qaraldi: 2014-yil 24-aprel.
  40. ↑ Arthur Evans Moule. The Chinese people: a handbook on China …. LONDON : Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, Northumberland Avenue W.C. : 43 Queen Victoria Street. E.C.: Society for promoting Christian knowledge, 1914 — 317-bet. Qaraldi: 2011-yil 17-iyul. „their Mosques at Ganfu (Canton) during the T'ang dynasty (a.d. 618—907) is certain, and later they spread to Ch'iian-chou and to Kan-p'u, Hangchow, and perhaps to Ningpo and Shanghai. These were not preaching or proselytising inroads, but commercial enterprises, and in the latter half of the eighth century there were Moslem troops in Shensi, 3,000 men, under Abu Giafar, coming to support the dethroned Emperor in A.d. 756. In the thirteenth century the influence of individual Moslems was immense, especially that of the Seyyid Edjell Shams ed-Din Omar, who served the Mongol Khans till his death in Yunnan A.d. 1279. His family still exists in Yunnan, and has taken a prominent part in Moslem affairs in China. The present Moslem element in China is most numerous in Yunnan and Kansu; and the most learned Moslems reside chiefly in Ssuch'uan, the majority of their books being printed in the capital city, Ch'eng-tu. Kansu is perhaps the most dominantly Mohammedan province in China, and here many different sects are found, and mosques with minarets used by the orthodox muezzin calling to prayer, and in one place veiled women are met with. These, however, are not Turks or Saracens, but for the most part pure Chinese. The total Moslem population is probably under 4,000,000, though other statistical estimates, always uncertain in China, vary from thirty to ten millions; but the figures given here are the most reliable at present obtainable, and when it is remembered that Islam in China has not been to any great extent a preaching or propagandist power by“ (Original from Harvard University)

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